The Role of Astronomy in Space Exploration

Astronomy serves as the backbone of space exploration, providing the fundamental knowledge needed to embark on ambitious missions beyond our planet. The intersection of astronomy and spacecraft enables astronomers to utilize advanced observational techniques, yielding insights into cosmic events and the structure of the universe. By studying celestial bodies and phenomena, scientists can track changes over time, from supernovae to the behavior of distant galaxies. This data analysis is essential for refining our models of cosmic evolution, ultimately enhancing our understanding of the universe and our place within it.

The Importance of Astronomical Observations

Astronomical observations are crucial in the field of astronomy, allowing scientists to gather essential information about celestial phenomena and the universe’s complex structure. By employing various wavelengths of light, such as those captured by space telescopes like Hubble and the James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers can observe details not visible to the naked eye. These observations inform our understanding of dynamic processes in space, including the navigation of spacecraft through interstellar regions. Instruments such as observatories and telescopes are critical for collecting this astronomical data, which helps in developing a comprehensive picture of the cosmos and its evolving nature.

How Telescopes Enhance Our Understanding of the Cosmos

Telescopes stand as vital instruments in the field of astronomy, significantly enhancing our capability to observe and understand the cosmos. The evolution of telescopes from simple optical designs to sophisticated space-based instruments has transformed our ability to detect various forms of electromagnetic radiation, including infrared and gamma rays. Space telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, have revolutionized our astronomical observations by providing unprecedented views of celestial bodies and phenomena, free from atmospheric interference. As we continue to develop new telescope technologies, we push the boundaries of our understanding, enabling deeper insights into astrophysical processes, such as the formation of galaxies and black holes within the universe.

Cosmology: The Study of the Universe’s Origins

Cosmology, a fascinating branch of astronomy, delves into the origins and evolution of the universe itself. By integrating observational data with theoretical physics, cosmologists aim to understand the universe’s large-scale structure, tracing its beginnings back to the Big Bang and contemplating its eventual fate. Through studying cosmic background radiation and the formation of galaxies, cosmologists piece together the rich tapestry of the universe’s history. This interdisciplinary field has advanced significantly with the help of sophisticated models and simulations, allowing for predictions that can be tested through astronomical observations, thereby enhancing our understanding of the fundamental laws governing reality.

The Evolution of Spacecraft Technology

Advancements in Spacecraft Design and Functionality

Spacecraft technology has evolved dramatically since the early days of space exploration. Modern spacecraft are designed with advanced materials and systems that enhance their functionality and durability in harsh space environments. Innovations such as autonomous navigation, advanced propulsion systems, and improved power generation capabilities have expanded the range and complexity of missions. The integration of artificial intelligence allows for real-time decision-making during missions, increasing efficiency and safety. These advancements enable spacecraft to conduct more sophisticated scientific experiments and gather data from previously unreachable destinations, further enriching our understanding of the cosmos. In a similar vein, tools like VPN Unlimited ensure secure and reliable communication for data transmission, which is crucial for the success of these complex missions.

Collaboration Between Astronomers and Engineers

Collaboration between astronomers and engineers is essential for the successful development of space missions and instruments. Astronomers provide the scientific objectives and requirements, while engineers translate these needs into practical designs and technologies. This interdisciplinary approach ensures that the instruments built are capable of achieving the desired scientific results. For instance, engineers must consider the physical processes involved in observing celestial phenomena when designing telescopes and detectors. This partnership fosters innovation and leads to the creation of highly effective instruments that push the boundaries of astronomical research and enhance our exploration of the universe.

Interdisciplinary Approaches in Spacecraft Development

Interdisciplinary approaches are increasingly important in spacecraft development, as they combine knowledge from various scientific and engineering fields. This collaboration can involve physicists, chemists, and materials scientists, in addition to traditional engineering disciplines. By integrating expertise from different areas, teams can address complex challenges that arise during the design and implementation of space missions. Such collaboration has led to breakthroughs in areas like propulsion technology, materials science, and data analysis, ultimately resulting in more successful and ambitious missions. These advancements not only propel spacecraft further into the cosmos but also deepen our understanding of astrophysics and the intricate workings of celestial bodies.

Astrobiology and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life

The Role of Telescopes in Detecting Exoplanets

Telescopes play a critical role in the search for exoplanets, which are planets outside our solar system. Techniques such as the transit method, where a planet passes in front of its host star, allow telescopes to detect slight dimming, indicating the presence of a planet. Space telescopes like Kepler and TESS have revolutionized our understanding of exoplanetary systems, discovering thousands of potential planets. These observations help scientists assess the habitability of exoplanets by analyzing their size, distance from their stars, and atmospheric composition. The continued development of more sensitive instruments promises to enhance our ability to identify Earth-like planets in the habitable zone.

Understanding Habitability Through Astronomy

Understanding the habitability of celestial bodies is a key focus of astrobiology, and astronomy provides the tools to investigate these environments. Factors such as distance from a star, atmospheric conditions, and surface temperatures are crucial in determining whether a planet can support life. Astronomers use spectroscopy to analyze the atmospheres of distant planets, searching for biosignatures or chemical indicators of life. The study of moons and planets within our own solar system, such as Europa and Mars, also informs our understanding of potential habitability. These investigations are essential for guiding future missions aimed at searching for life beyond Earth.

Future Missions Aimed at Extraterrestrial Exploration

Future missions aimed at extraterrestrial exploration are increasingly ambitious, focusing on both nearby planets and distant exoplanets. Missions like NASA’s Artemis program aim to return humans to the Moon and establish a sustainable presence, serving as a stepping stone for future Mars missions. Robotic missions, such as the Mars Sample Return, are designed to collect and return samples from the Martian surface for analysis. Additionally, missions like the James Webb Space Telescope will provide unprecedented insights into the atmospheres of exoplanets, searching for signs of life. These endeavors are critical for expanding our understanding of the potential for life beyond Earth.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to Space Exploration

The Intersection of Astronomy, Physics, and Engineering

The intersection of astronomy, physics, and engineering is vital for the advancement of space exploration. Astronomy provides the scientific questions and objectives, while physics helps to understand the fundamental principles governing celestial phenomena. Engineering applies this knowledge to develop instruments and spacecraft capable of conducting complex missions. This multidisciplinary approach ensures that scientific goals are met while addressing the technical challenges of space exploration. For example, understanding gravitational waves requires expertise in both astrophysics and engineering to design sensitive detectors that can measure these minute signals.

How Different Fields Contribute to Space Missions

Different fields contribute significantly to the success of space missions, each bringing unique expertise and perspectives. Astronomers focus on the scientific objectives and data analysis, while engineers handle the design, construction, and testing of spacecraft and instruments. Physicists contribute to understanding the underlying principles of the phenomena being studied, and computer scientists develop the software and algorithms necessary for data processing and instrument control. This collaborative environment fosters innovation and enables teams to tackle complex challenges, ensuring that missions are successful and scientifically fruitful.

Case Studies of Successful Collaborative Projects

Successful collaborative projects in space exploration serve as excellent case studies of interdisciplinary teamwork. The Hubble Space Telescope is a prime example, where astronomers and engineers worked together to create a powerful observatory that has transformed our understanding of the universe. The Mars Rover missions also exemplify this collaboration, with teams of scientists and engineers developing sophisticated rovers capable of conducting extensive scientific investigations on the Martian surface. These projects highlight the importance of combining diverse expertise to achieve complex goals, ultimately leading to groundbreaking discoveries in astronomy and space science.

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Origins: Historical Perspective

In its simplest form, can be traced back to early markets where merchants relied on personal recommendations and face-to-face contacts to draw in customers. Businesses sought novel ways to reach customers as economies expanded, giving rise to tactics like print advertisements, cold calls, and direct mail marketing.

A Game-Changing Technological Revolution

Lead generation underwent a revolution with the introduction of technology in the late 20th century. Businesses now have access to a global audience thanks to the development of the internet. Websites, email marketing, and online adverts have completely changed the lead generating environment and allowed firms to contact clients worldwide.

Data-Driven Approaches in the Digital Age: Disclosing

The introduction of digital footprints made a vast amount of data accessible. Data-driven strategies have become increasingly popular in the digital era. Businesses made full use of analytics to examine consumer demographics, behaviors, and preferences. As a result, customer interactions changed, encouraging personalized experiences and sparking the rise of targeted marketing campaigns.

The Difficult Landscape of Lead Generation: Navigation

The lead generation environment of today is weaved together from a tapestry of several strategies. Business owners adopt a sophisticated approach that makes use of the influence of social media platforms, content marketing, and an understanding of the subtleties of search engine optimization (SEO). This approach is built on establishing sincere relationships with clients, offering tangible advantages, and attending to their issues.

A paradigm shift in AI and automation at the dawn of the era

Thanks to automation and artificial intelligence (AI), lead generation has entered a new phase. Artificial intelligence (AI)-powered algorithms mine enormous datasets, anticipating future and allowing firms to concentrate resources on customers with a higher chance of converting. By offering prompt responses and nurturing throughout the whole customer lifecycle, chatbots are improving user experiences.

Protection of the Content Rule 

Increase your credibility and authority. The secret in the modern day is content. Businesses promote themselves as thought leaders in their industries by offering practical resources, engaging videos, and informative blog entries. They gain credibility and confidence by providing enlightened knowledge and practical answers, which attract interested others to their cause.

New technologies for lead generation

The following paradigm-shifting components could have a significant effect on the lead generating market in the future:

• Hyper-personalization: As AI-powered personalization develops, companies will be able to create distinctive experiences that genuinely connect with particular.
• Voice search optimization has become a crucial component of marketing strategies as a result of the evolution of speech-assisted technologies.
• Tests, polls, and other engrossing interactive content will captivate users and provide opportunities for deeper involvement.
• Power based on blockchain: Blockchain technology’s openness and data security will promote trust, which is necessary for effective leаd creation.
• Experiences powered by augmented reality (AR) will alter how clients are provided with goods and services and increase engagement through immersive interactions.

Professional Lead Management Tips to Boost Leаd Generation

In the intensely competitive leаd generation industry, it is crucial to keep abreast of tactical trends and new developments. A helpful ally on your road are websites like leadmanagement.reviews – in-depth product reviews, software insights, and leаd management techniques. You might be able to make wise selections that significantly enhance your lead generation efforts if you are well-informed and have access to a variety of information.

Finally, the lead generating process’ evolution shows how swiftly companies may adjust to the always changing market circumstances. Leаd generation has come a long way from prehistoric marketplaces to the digital era, and now it is entering the age of AI and automation. A thrilling future is just around the corner, and success in this fast-paced environment will be determined by shrewd choices and knowledgeable judgment.

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In today’s world, a satellite can play the role of a primary network node, a telephone switch and a router-switch of a computer network, which is achieved by the interaction of satellite hardware not only with ground base stations, but also among themselves, forming direct space networks.

Modern satellites have four types of orbits, in which they move:

Geostationary satellite. The satellite rotates over the equator at the speed of the earth.

1. The satellite, due to its high orbit, covers a quarter of the Earth’s surface.
2. Satellite is stationary for ground antennas, which greatly facilitates the organization of communication, so there is no need to automatically correct the direction of the ground antenna, as we have to do for low-orbit and medium-altitude satellites.
3. Satellite is at a considerable height from the Earth’s atmosphere, the less wear and tear, which increases its service life. Low-orbit satellites, because of friction against the air, constantly lose altitude and have to regain it with engines.
4. Satellites have a large number of antennas, which allows them to maintain a large number of communication channels.
   To receive a signal from such a satellite, it is necessary to use parabolic antennas up to 10 m in diameter, but with the advent of directional antennas, which were installed on satellites,
   the diameter of the receiving antenna was reduced to 1 m.
   A disadvantage of satellites in geostationary orbits is that they are located at a great distance from the Earth’s surface, which leads to large delays (from 230 to 280 msec) in the transmission of signals. In addition, at such distances are very high signal losses.

Medium-orbit satellites.

These satellites cover 10,000 to 15,000 km of the Earth’s surface and have a delay in signal propagation.
terrestrial territory and provide signal propagation delay of about 50 msec. The most known systems using such satellites are GPS and GLONASS systems.
GPS satellites are located in six planes at an altitude of approximately 20 180 km from the surface of the planet. GLONASS satellites are located in three planes at an altitude of about 19,100 km altitude. The nominal number of satellites in both systems is 24.
Both systems use signals on the basis of pseudo-noise sequences which gives them high noise immunity and reliability at low transmitter power.
According to the purpose, each system has two base frequencies – L1 (standard accuracy) and L2 (high accuracy). GLONASS uses frequency separation of signals, that is, each satellite operates on its own frequency. Each satellite of the system besides basic information transmits also auxiliary information necessary for continuous operation of receiving equipment.

Low Earth orbit satellites.

The main advantage of such satellites – the proximity to Earth, and therefore lower power transmitters, small size of antennas and short signal propagation time (about 20-25 msec). The main disadvantage of these satellites is that They have a very small coverage area – only 8000 km. Revolutions period of such a satellite around the Earth Earth revolution period of such satellite = 1,5 – 2 hours. Time of communication with a base station is approximately 20 minutes. In addition, because of the low orbit, such satellites are very strongly affected by the atmosphere, which limits service life of such satellites 8-10 years. “Iridium and Globalstar are the main companies using low-orbit satellite systems for mobile communications in places where installing cellular base stations is not possible or very difficult.
Now in the Iridium system (Iridium) operates 66 low-orbit satellites, placed on the 6 circumpolar orbits. The mechanism of inter-satellite communications allows to transmit a signal from one satellite to another without retransmitting this signal to the Earth. The bandwidth in each direction is 25 Mbit/s. The Iridium satellites are located 780 km above the Earth’s surface, below all other satellites used by other known mobile satellite communications systems.
The space segment of the Globalstar system includes 48 primary and 4 reserve satellites, weighing about 450 kg each, located in circular orbits in 8 planes at an altitude of 1414 km, 6 satellites in each. “Globalstar” orbits have an inclination of 52 degrees. Thus, Globalstar does not extend to the polar regions. Globalstar satellites have two body-mounted antennas turned toward Earth.

Satellites of highly elliptical orbits.

Elongated elliptical orbits with a perigee radius of about a thousand kilometers and an apogee radius of one or several tens of thousands of kilometers.
If a satellite’s orbit is highly elliptical, it will spend most of its orbital period around the Earth in an area close to apogee where it moves very slowly. This means that the satellite can be within sight of ground stations for most of orbit period, then it disappears from visibility. By placing several satellites in the same elliptical orbit at equal distances from each other, a continuous service effect can be achieved.
Using a High Elliptical Orbit can provide signal coverage anywhere on the globe. The movement of HEO orbits is not limited to equatorial lines, the use of which leads to insufficient coverage of high and polar latitudes.
The main disadvantage of the elliptical orbit is that the position of a satellite in this orbit relative to the ground station position of the satellite relative to the ground station is constantly changing.
Since communications satellites are mostly located near the equator, the lack of communications in the high-latitude Arctic remains a serious problem that needs to be addressed as commercial, scientific, and tourist activities move farther out.

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Absolutely all of the terrestrial communication channels have the following disadvantages: limited territory coverage, network modernization problems (technical and economic), the inability to quickly dismantle equipment and deploy the network in another place. Therefore in a number of cases the use of satellite communication systems is the most justified not only from technical but also from economic point of view and sometimes is the only available option to provide reliable and high quality communication.

Today there is a large number of satellite systems based on different technologies and designed for different applications.

Satellite security systems

On the basis of GPS technology the satellite security systems are rapidly developing nowadays. In automobile industry classic multilevel security system is supplemented by communication channel and car coordinate determination system using both classic methods of radio location by radio beacons and on GPS base. Developed and implemented security systems quite a lot (Cesar Satellite, LOJACK, etc.), but the principle of operation is approximately the same.

In the vehicle is installed covertly central unit, it is connected to a variety of security sensors or is already installed on-board alarm system. In the case of an emergency situation (theft, attack, etc.) the central unit through a communication channel transmits information or the owner or the control center. The communication channel can be organized on the basis of GSM-networks, satellite communication systems or by radio channel. Through the use of GPS-receiver is possible to track the location of the object in real time, view the route taken, the location and duration of stops, and much more.

Satellite TV

Another, the most well-known area of application of satellite systems – satellite television. Remember the satellite dishes (antennas) cozily placed on the houses of your city, they are so familiar with the general landscape of the city, we do not pay attention to them. Set of equipment for receiving programs from any satellite consists of three main elements: antenna, converter and receiver. If you do not go into details, the principle is similar to the work of conventional television antenna, the difference is that the role of towers here is a satellite and the signal from it is not analog but digital (so we have to use in addition to the antenna more and converter to the receiver). But much higher quality and quantity of received channels. Distinctive feature of satellite TV is the ability to receive “closed” or commercial channels which require a paid subscription.

It is worth noting that at the moment more and more widespread is the equipment that allows you to receive TV and connect to the Internet, working with one satellite set.

Global Satellite Communication Systems (GSCS)

Examples of GSSS are: Globalstar, Inmarsat, Thuraya, Iridium. Initially, the systems were designed for mobile and fixed telephony in areas where there are no communication lines. Later, the ability to access the Internet, transfer audio and video information, etc. appeared. The systems became multi-service. The generalized principle of operation for all systems: the satellite, receiving the subscriber signal transmits it to the nearest ground station interface. The ground station of coupling authorizes it and routes it through terrestrial networks or a satellite channel to the destination point – it can be a subscriber of the same or another satellite network, a cellular network, a public telephone network, etc. You can read more about Globalstar’s GSSS here.

Systems differ from each other by the size and cost of subscriber terminals (expensive – in Inmarsat system, cheap – in Thuraya system), traffic cost, coverage area and technical features of the system construction (for example, Inmarsat system uses geostationary satellites, Globalstar and Iridium systems – low-orbital).

Global positioning system

One of the most striking examples of the use of satellite technologies is the Global Positioning System. The system allows to determine with a high degree of accuracy (up to several centimeters) the location of the object (latitude, longitude and altitude above sea level), direction and speed of its movement. Quite interesting is the use of the system by many scientists and researchers as a source of exact time. GPS (Global Positioning System) consists of 24 artificial satellites of the Earth, a network of ground stations for tracking them and an unlimited number of user terminals. To determine your location, a GPS receiver receives signals from the satellites, compares the time the signal is sent from the satellite with the time it is received on Earth, and calculates your exact position.

The GPS system works continuously. To use GPS, simply purchase a GPS receiver. Depending on the purpose, you can choose from wearable, automotive, marine, and aviation models of receivers. GPS allows you to significantly reduce the costs associated with search operations and significantly reduce the time of rescue operations. There is no connection fee and no subscription fee for using the GPS system.

The development of satellite communication systems technology is aimed at reducing the cost of subscriber terminals, reducing the antennas and the power of their transmitters while improving the characteristics of communication channels. A qualitative leap in the development of satellite technologies could be the technology of transferring the network control functions from the central earth station to a single satellite. This will significantly reduce the time delay associated with the time of signal transmission to and from the satellite, which will have a positive impact on the quality of communication.

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The Iridium project was launched in 1988.
Initially it was planned that the network would consist of 77 satellites and was named after the chemical element with the same atomic number – Iridium. Later it became clear that only 66 satellites would be enough to cover the entire globe, including the poles and oceans.

The system was developed with financial support from Motorola. The first call through Iridium was made in 1997. The commercial network became fully operational on November 1, 1998.

The expected life cycle of the original satellites was 8 years, but they lasted until they were completely replaced by the new generation of satellites, Iridium-NEXT. The improved satellites were launched between 2017 and 2019 by SpaceX.
Iridium satellites are integrated into a lattice system that allows them to transmit signals between them. This eliminates communication discontinuities. The satellites communicate with their neighbors through a Ka band transceiver. Each satellite can support up to four inter-satellite links: two to satellites in front and behind in the same orbital plane and two to satellites in adjacent planes on either side.

Iridium also uses ground stations that connect to the nearest available satellites. There are currently only four stations: two in the U.S., one in Europe and one in South America. The stations connect the satellite system and the terrestrial networks to improve network availability. But, calls from one terminal to another can be transmitted directly through satellites, without the involvement of ground stations.
The constellation consists of 66 active satellites, and is divided into 6 orbitals of 11 satellites each. Orbitals are spaced 30° apart.

As of today, Iridium is the largest commercial satellite network.

Inmarsat

Inmarsat is a British telecommunications company.
inmarsat-logo
The company was originally part of the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT), which was established in 1979 to operate a satellite network for United Nations maritime communications.

In 1999, the company was privatized and its operational part was transferred to the British entity Inmarsat Ltd. Inmarsat is the first privatized satellite company.
Unlike Iridium, all connections to Inmarsat’s network are strictly through ground stations. Inmarsat uses 14 geostationary satellites. The satellites are divided into different series and are used for different purposes:
4 Inmarsat-3 series satellites.
2 spares
1 for existing services (operated via ground stations that do not belong to Inmarsat)
1 leased out
4 Inmarsat-4 series satellites.
Provides telephone and Internet communications
5 Inmarsat-5 (GX) satellites
Used for the Global Xpress network – a global provider of Internet. The speeds of this network reach up to 50 Mbps
The satellites are operated from the Satellite Control Center (SCC) at the Inmarsat headquarters in London. The SCC is responsible for monitoring the satellites and maintaining their trajectories.

Inmarsat’s main satellite applications are:
Aviation (security, wi-fi for passengers on board)
Ocean communications (fishing boats, drilling platforms, passenger ships)
Government and military applications
Business solutions for private companies
Inmarsat network coverage also provides free distress alerting services for maritime vessels and aviation as a public service.

Thuraya

Thuraya, established in 1997, is the first satellite communications provider in the UAE.
Although the company owns just 2 geosynchronous satellites, their service is available in 161 countries in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia.
The first satellite is located in a geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of 6.3° at 44°E. The second satellite is located in a geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of 6.2° at the position 98.5° E. Both satellites support up to 1,750 calls simultaneously.

The company does not rule out launching a third satellite in the future.
logo network-coverage-1
Thuraya offers various communication services – calls, SMS and Internet. The company also makes its own equipment, often with GPS connectivity. Their mobile devices can provide speeds from 60 kbps and 15 kbps. While using the network with their own devices – speeds can reach 444 kbps.

Thuraya is also flexible in their processes. Their sim cards are capable of working in regular phones. In some cases, ordinary SIM cards can also work with the satellite network (provided that the GSM provider has a contract with Thuraya connections).

Starlink

Starlink is a global satellite system being developed by SpaceX to provide high-speed broadband Internet access to remote locations.
250px-Starlink_Logo.svg

As of May 2021, more than 1,600 satellites have been launched and are in operation. Starlink is planning an infrastructure of 32 ground stations.

Unlike Iridium, Inmarsat and Thuraya – Starlink does not connect directly to the user’s mobile device. Instead, special terminals have been developed that will communicate with satellites and transmit Internet to mobile devices.

The network is still in beta stage. Testing is available in 8 countries: North America, Europe and Oceania. Initial tests have shown download speeds ranging from 11 Mbps to 60 Mbps. Military and aviation applications are also in the development phase.

When this network is fully operational, it will be able to provide high-speed Internet throughout the Earth’s surface. It is expected that 10% of Internet traffic will pass through Starlink.

Orbcomm

Orbcomm is an American company offering industrial M2M and IoT solutions.
250px-Head_orbcomm
The project started in the late 80s, and the first test satellites were launched in 1992.
In 1995, the first tests of the global satellite network took place.
By February 1996, ORBCOMM launched the world’s first commercial service for global telephone communications, based on LEO satellites.

Between 1997 and 1999 Orbcomm launched 33 satellites.

As of 2021, the company owns and operates a network of 31 satellites in low earth orbit. Their ground infrastructure also includes 16 base stations around the world.

Orbcomm’s network services are available in more than 130 countries.

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• Satellites
• Ground stations
• Terminals (mobile devices)

Typically, when connecting to a satellite network, the terminal first connects to the satellite. In turn, the satellite transmits information to one of the ground stations for further routing.
Advanced satellite systems can maintain and transmit connections between satellites and terminals without the involvement of base stations.
Satellites are the most important part. They can be divided into several categories, depending on the type of orbit. Radio and telephone satellites are divided into just 2 types:
Geostationary orbit (GEO), 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles) above the Earth
Low Earth orbit (LEO), 640 to 1,120 kilometers (400 to 700 miles) above the Earth
The first type can provide virtually uninterrupted service with a much smaller number of satellites: as few as 3-4. At the same time, LEO satellite networks will need from 40 to 70 satellites to operate. The low number of satellites makes it cheaper to launch GEO systems, but the satellites themselves are heavier and more difficult to produce than their low-orbit counterparts.
LEO satellites have lower data latency but lower throughput, averaging around 2-9 kbps. By comparison, GEO satellites can have speeds in the neighborhood of 60-512 kbps. Also, it is worth noting that network speeds are improving as technology advances and it is possible that in the future satellites will be able to provide high speed internet.
Another disadvantage of geosynchronous systems is the limitation of their availability on Earth. The signal from such satellites can only be picked up within 70 degrees north and 70 degrees south of the equator. Mountains and dense forests can impede signal penetration. Satellites in low-Earth orbit have no such limitations because multiple satellites are available at any given time.
Because of the constant movement of LEO satellites around the Earth, companies producing LEO systems need to monitor service availability. To avoid communication discontinuities – LEO satellites can be combined into constellations of satellites and be able to communicate with each other. Within a constellation, satellites can usually be combined by orbital planes.
GPRS networks have seen rapid growth and progress, but satellite systems have not stood still either.

Satellites and GPRS – a comparison

Today, satellite terminals can be no different in size from standard smartphones. Compared to mobile networks, satellite systems have the following advantages:
Better network coverage
Protected data transmission
Weather conditions do not affect the signal
Network coverage is the main advantage. No tethering to cell towers allows satellite networks to work in remote areas, aviation and shipping, as well as, disaster and war-affected areas.
Satellite networks are also available for personal and scientific spheres. From simple walks in the mountains to scientific expeditions to polar regions, satellites can help you stay in touch.
Unfortunately, no system is perfect. Satellite systems also have a number of drawbacks.

The main ones are:

• High cost of equipment and service
• Low connection speed
• Limitations on using networks of other providers

Satellites have a high price to use the network. It is more difficult to send a signal to a satellite than to the nearest cell tower, accordingly, the providers’ prices are higher. It is worth noting that many companies offer equipment for rent.
Terminals, as a rule, are designed for use in a particular network and cannot be configured to receive data from another provider. In addition, the terminals themselves often do not have the same prevalence as cell phones. Satellite terminals may also be subject to local government bans.

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